SINGLE TEENAGE MOTHER WITH NEWBORN Research Paper

SINGLE TEENAGE MOTHER WITH NEWBORN - Research Paper Example Millions of teenage girls get pregnant in the United States every year and most of them are those who did not take any contraceptive measure. Teenage pregnancy in the US is anticipated to be around 1 million with 85 percent as unplanned (Sams par. 1). Teenage pregnancy, for some mothers, is a disaster for their lives but for others, it is something of a blessing. Research suggests that many deleterious effects can result from teenage pregnancy- effects that are psychological, physical and social. This paper intends to discuss what social problems do single teenage mothers go through and how the society deals with them. The issue of teenage pregnancies has always been considered as disagreeable in all ages (Holgate, Evans & Yuen). Duncan studied what effects teenage pregnancies had on social outcomes for the mother and found that although teenage pregnancies are expected to make the single mother suffer emotionally, socially and financially, still in many cases the mother regard the s ocial outcomes as positive and consider it a delightful experience staying connected with the child. Gillham (11) found that single teenage mothers feel respectable and powerful. He conducted a research about 533 single teenage mothers who came from lower socio-economic status. ... Thus, for many single teenage mothers, their pregnancy and childbirth comes as an opportunity rather than devastation (Duncan). Kidger, while discussing the features of the New Labour’s Strategy as a part of the Teenage Pregnancy Strategy, states that the policy tends to offer the single teenage mothers better education and employment in order to save them from long term social exclusion. However, Kidger states that the efforts for making the social inclusion possible for teenage mothers will result in encouraging them to develop more intimate relationships in teenage. Female teenagers will start taking their pregnancy as a valid option and an opportunity to avail better job opportunities. Giullari also concluded from his study that such policies are actually supporting the teenage pregnancies rather than controlling them. Despite positive outcomes experienced by many single teen mothers, it is impossible to ignore the stigma attached to the concept of teenage pregnancy. Socia l discrimination, prejudice and late modernity have given rise to the need of resilient mothering practice that teenage mothers should utilize to look after their children (McDermott & Graham). Research also confirms that working single mothers who are in their teens have to suffer from social exclusion due to which they have to mother in poor conditions. They have to develop kin relations and a strong mother-child relationship to gain the identity of a good mother. This makes young mother practices impulsive but restricted by social inequalities. Single teenage mothers have been stigmatized by the society so much so that this perception has created great negative impacts on their lives and their

Configuring Static and Default Routes Essay Example for Free

Configuring Static and Default Routes Essay Write a paragraph (minimum five college-level sentences) below that summarizes what was accomplished in this lab, what you learned by performing it, how it relates to this week’s TCO’s and other course material; and just as important, how you feel it will benefit you in your academic and professional career. (10 points) Copy and Paste the following screenshots from your Configuring Static and Default Routes lab below. Task 4, Step 1: Paste a screenshot AFTER you execute the â€Å"show ip route† command. (2 points) Question: What is the significance of the â€Å"R*† next to the 0.0.0.0 network entry? What does it mean? (3 points) *Hint* Read and study the explanations within the lab for assistance. The R means that it got that information from the RIP command and the asterisk means that it is the default network. Task 4, Step 2: Paste a screenshot AFTER you execute the â€Å"show ip route† command (2 points) Question: What is the significance of the â€Å"S*† next to the 0.0.0.0 network entry? Explain the differences between the entry in Router3’s route table and the 0.0.0.0 entry in Router2’s table. (3 points) *Hint* Read and study the explanations within the lab for assistance. The S means that it is a static address and the asterisk means that it is the default. Task 5, Step 1: Paste a screenshot AFTER you execute the â€Å"ping† command (2 points) Question: What is the significance of the five exclamation points? (3 points) *Hint* Read and study the explanations within the lab for assistance. The five exclamation points are because it doesn’t have a direct route it is using the default route from the RIP. Task 5, Step 2: Paste a screenshot AFTER you execute the â€Å"trace† command. (2 points) Question: What is the significance of the milli-sec time references in the trace responses? (3 points) *Hint* Read and study the explanations within the lab for assistance or do a little Internet research. That is used to see how quickly the packets are sent and received.

Successful Organizational Diversity Management :: Workplace Employment Business Essays

Successful Organizational Diversity Management Why is organizational diversity important? Historically, diversity in the workplace has been recognized as an employment equity issue. Now, however, diversity in the workplace is being recognized as a benefit that will contribute to an organization's bottom line. Increased employee and customer satisfaction end up as increased productivity, all of which are measurable outcomes (Goff, 1998). Diversity goes beyond employment equity to nurturing an environment that values the differences and maximizes the potential of all employees, one that stimulates employee creativity and innovativeness (U.S. Merit Systems Protection Board (U.S. MSPB), 1993). To create an organizational culture that supports workforce diversity involves several important elements. These elements include a needs analysis, administrative and management support and commitment, education and training, culture and management systems changes and continuous follow-up and evaluation. Needs Analysis In many of my resources, a needs analysis was the second crucial element after senior management support and commitment. I feel a needs analysis should be prepared first to provide information to senior management in sequestering their support as well as to adequately determine workforce and organizational needs for creating a diverse workplace. First, find out what employees are concerned about. Most often used for this are focus groups and surveys. The needs and expectations of a diverse workforce can vary by organizational and functional levels, location, ethnicity, and gender (Baytos and Delatte, 1993). Second, determine the needs of the organization. By asking certain questions, an organization can determine its needs based on its culture and resources (U.S. MSPB, 1993). Does the organization have trouble retaining employees who would add to its diversity? In an organization with diversity, which, if any, areas of the workforce are being treated inappropriately? Ha s the organization impressed upon its leaders and managers the benefits that come from managing diversity appropriately? By using a survey that focuses on these questions you can ascertain where administration and management feel the organization presently is regarding diversity. Administrative and Management Commitment and Support Administrative and management support is critical for diversity change efforts. An important role for senior management is to provide leadership through development of a vision and goals for a diverse workplace (Lapid-Bogda, 1992). To gain support from administration you need to directly link diversity to the business.

Goal Line Technology in Soccer

A global audience of 3. 2 billion people – about 46. 4% of the world population – watched the World Cup tournament of 2010, according to FIFA, the world governing body of soccer. The final between Spain and The Netherlands alone had an audience of approximately 530 million. There is little debate about which sport is more played and watched more than any other. It unites and divides cities and countries. It sparks debate and controversy, which is discussed within families, with co-workers, and even between heads of state.At present, the most pressing issue facing the sport is whether to introduce goal line technology, computerized technology to definitely determine the scoring of a goal. This is not a new problem. According to the rules of the game, a goal should be awarded when the whole ball crosses the goal line. However, there have been many high profile cases when the officials have made the wrong decision and awarded a goal – or failed to award a goal. In s uch a low scoring game as soccer, where teams typically score one to two goals per game, it can mean the difference between winning and losing a game.During an important tournament, it can mean winning or losing the biggest prize of them all: the World Cup. For example, in the 1966 World Cup final between a very closely matched England and West Germany sides, the game went into thirty minutes of extra time with the scores level after the normal ninety minute period. Then Alan Ball crossed the ball to England’s main striker, Geoff Hurst, who controlled and ball and shot towards the goal. The ball beat the German goalkeeper and crashed on the underside of the bar, sending it crashing down towards the goal line.Tofik Bakhramov, the watching Russian linesman (actually a common misconception, as he was actually from the then Soviet state of Azerbaijan) indicated to the referee it was a goal, believing that the whole ball had crossed the white line. The goal was given and it change d the match. England went on to win the game and seal the country’s greatest ever sporting triumph. However, based on the TV footage and photographs of the incident, the common unbiased conception is that it bounced on the line and therefore the goal should not have been awarded.For years now the technology to judge whether the whole ball has crossed the goal line has existed. There are two well known systems: Sony’s Hawk-Eye and the German alternative, GoalRef. Hawk-Eye is well known to cricket and tennis fans and has been used to great success in both sports, accurately showing where the ball landed in tennis, and predicting the flight of the ball in cricket. In soccer it could judge whether the ball crossed the goal line with a high level of accuracy. The second option – Goalref – places sensors inside the ball and goalposts, which categorically determine the exact location of the ball when near the goal.So why hasn’t the world’s most pop ulous sport embraced technology? Surely this technology would improve the game and make it fair for everyone? Well, it isn’t as simple as it appears. In fact FIFA have found itself in a quagmire. If they introduce technology now at this late stage in 2012 they will be seen as being slow to react to important problems; resist technology and they will only exacerbate the problem in the future. The game’s hierarchy has, until recently, been largely against the introduction of technology.FIFA spends hundreds of millions of dollars worldwide investing in the game at grass roots level, determined to ensure football keeps its universal appeal by being played by all people on a level playing field. In short, FIFA wants a group of children playing on the beach in Brazil to essentially be playing the same game as Barcelona versus Real Madrid in the Champions League Final. Moreover, the governing body fears the introduction of technology will lead to a ‘slippery slopeâ€⠄¢ whereby technology will be used in many aspects of the game, drastically changing the flow of the game.Michel Platini, head of the very influential European governing body UEFA, is one such example of the resistance of technology. Platini says, â€Å"we will see. As for technology, I don't think it's good for football. Maybe goal line technology, but that would be the first step towards the introduction of technology in all areas of the game. I'm still very much against it and, to be honest, I'm not going to change my mind at the age of 57. † Instead, Platini has implemented a new system whereby five referees are used instead of the standard three officials.This, he argues, has eradicated the problem of ‘ghost goals’ citing Marko Devic’s ‘goal’ for Ukraine in the 2012 European Championships as being ‘the only error’ in the last three years. Like most soccer fans, I love debating the game with family, friends and co-workers. I t hrive on the controversy. When England midfielder Frank Lampard ‘scored’ for England against Germany in the 2010 World Cup (the ball was clearly over the line but the spin of it made it bounce back out of the goal and the game played on) I was on my feet shouting at the referee for not giving the clear goal.Equally, when the aforementioned Ukrainian striker Marko Devic’s shot clearly went over the goal line and neither the referee nor linemen saw it, I was smiling to myself thanking our good fortunate. In both cases it would have probably changed the match – and the tournament. After the match endless experts and pundits argued the issue. Essentially the controversy had inadvertently created an even greater spectacle. As much as I love the debates, I think it is now time to move forward. There is too much money involved and the reputation and credibility of the game is at stake.I believe FIFA have an obligation and responsibility to introduce goal line tec hnology – and the sooner the better. It should proceed with caution though. The ball crossing the line is definitive. In essence, the whole ball either completely crossed the white line or it didn’t. It isn’t open to interpretation like, say, whether a player has committed a foul. It is my belief that FIFA, while embracing this technology, should oppose further technological advances in the game, especially when it comes to subjective decisions. Football is a fast-paced game and breaks in the continuity would drastically change the game for the worse.Goal line technology has been proven to work quickly and effectively ensuring it will have minimal negative effect. In conclusion, I acknowledge the problem of whether to introduce goal line technology is a divisive issue. I can see the argument from both sides. However, I do not agree with the current policy of stalling on the issue and delaying technological change or the over-complicated idea of bringing in more assistant referees, as suggested by Michel Platini. Instead, it is my belief that it is time for FIFA to embrace change and bring goal line technology into the â€Å"beautiful game. †

Baath party

The constant struggle to promote interests has cultivated the creation of the Baath Party. By incorporating the proper ideals prescribed by the founders and promoting efficient measures to address these issues, the Baath party became a dominant force both in local and international politics. History Tracing the history of the party can be dated back from the early 1940’s. Its primary location of founding was in Damascus wherein the fundamental beliefs were grounded on the idea of socialism.â€Å"The Ba'ath Party is a pan-Arab organisation formed in 1947 at a founding congress in Damascus. † (Issues Briefs, 2007, p. 1) â€Å"The three major proponents of early Baathist thought, Zaki al-Arsuzi, Salah al-Din al-Bitar, and Michel Aflaq, were middle-class educators whose political thought had been influenced by Western education. † (The Syrian Encyclopedia, p. 1) The political ideals promulgated by the party then spread into the areas of Syria and expanded in other Ar ab countries. The history of Baathist’s party in Syria can be described as a constant struggle for power.It all started in 1958. â€Å"In 1958—with one of its founders, Salah al-Din Bitar, as foreign minister—it led Syria into the ill-fated United Arab Republic (UAR) with Egypt. † (Infoplease, 2005, p. 1) The next stage of its rise was during the successful coup attempt by the members of the party. â€Å"In 1963 a military coup restored the Ba’ath to power in Syria, and it embarked on a course of large-scale nationalization. † (Infoplease, 2005, p. 1) Another military takeover again prompted the revitalized ideologies of the Ba’ath party during the 70’s.â€Å"Despite constant maneuvering and government changes, the two factions remained in an uneasy coalition of power until 1970, when, in another coup, Assad succeeded in ousting Atassi as prime minister. † (Infoplease, 2005, p. 1) The next section will present the histor ical foundation of the party in Iraqi politics. The founding of the party in Iraq can be attributed to three men who formed the Ba’ath party. â€Å"The three men, Fayiz Ismail, Wasfi al-Ghanim and Sulayman al-Eisa – returned to Syria and joined political scientist Zaki al-Arsoozi, who was intent on founding al-Baath (renaissance) party.† (Aljazeera. net, 2005, p. 1) The formal establishment of the party in Iraq came into force during 1949. â€Å"Upon their return to Baghdad in 1949, they established the Iraqi Baath Party. † Their efforts never became unnoticed for they were recognized by the grand party in Syria. â€Å"The party membership grew steadily from just 50 members in 1951 until they gained recognition by the Baath National Leadership in Damascus. † (Aljazeera. net, 2005, p. 1) Ideologies The Ba’ath party’s ideology revolves around the promotion of Arab nationalism.â€Å"Articulated as the principle of Arab nationalism, the Baath movement was one of several political groups that drew legitimacy from an essentially reactive ideology. † (The Syrian Encyclopedia, p. 1) Their principles are deeply rooted on Arab ideals and political stratification and cooperation. â€Å"The Baath party embraced the principles of â€Å"unity, freedom, and socialism. † (Aljazeera. net, 2005, p. 1) â€Å"From its earliest development, the motivation behind Baathist political thought and its leading supporters was the need to produce a means of reasserting the Arab spirit in the face of foreign domination.† (Iraqi News, 2003, p. 1) In addition, the party seeks to revitalize Arab ideals and foster a deeper invigoration of principles within the community. â€Å"Arabs needed a regeneration of the common heritage of people in the region to drive off debilitating external influences. † (Iraqi News, 2003, p. 1) With these, the party started to create mechanisms and practices to synchronize each party†™s goals in every state. â€Å"In early 1988, the Baath Party began calling for parallelism between regional (qutri) and national (qawmi) goals. † (Aljazeera.net, 2005, p. 1) Scope and Influences in other Countries It has been mentioned on the previous section that Baathist principles have also paved the way for its expansion to other Arab states. The Ba’ath party refers this as national branches. One example of its national branch is in Jordan. â€Å"It was with the annexation of the West Bank (with its large Palestinian population) that the Ba'th Party really grew strong in the country's nationalist-leftist alliance. † (Encyclopedia of the Orient, 2007, p. 1) Another national branch was in Lebanon.â€Å"The Arab Ba'th Party was established in 1948, but in the following year, when international parties were banned, their freedom was limited. † (Encyclopedia of the Orient, 2007, p. 1) Notable successes were highlighted in this country. â€Å"Lebanon wa s used for the Ba'th Party's congresses in 1959 and 1968. † (Encyclopedia of the Orient, 2007, p. 1) Other national branches include of North Yemen and South Yemen. Conclusion The Ba’ath party has a long and rich history which can be attributed to a mixture of failures and successes in Arab politics.As continuous developments occur both in the local and international arena, the Ba’ath party shall continue to exhibit and promote its ideologies that will enhance and protect the interests of the Arab countries both locally and internationally. It is through these objectives that they continue to have a firm grip and hold in local politics in the Arab countries. References Aljazeera. net (2005) ‘The Iraqi Baath Party’ in Aljazeera. [online] Retrieved December 18, 2007 from http://english. aljazeera. net/English/archive/archive? ArchiveId=60 Encyclopedia of the Orient. (2007) Ba’ath Socialist Party’ in Encyclopeadia of the Orient.Retrieved D ecember 18, 2007 from http://i-cias. com/e. o/baath. htm Infoplease. (2005) Ba’ath Party. Retrieved December 18, 2007 from http://www. infoplease. com/ce6/history/A0805601. html Iraqi News. (2003) Al-Baath Party. [on-line] Retrieved December 18, 2007 from http://www. iraqinews. com/party_baath_party. shtml Issues Briefs. (2007) History of the Ba’ath Party. Retrieved December 18, 2007 from http://issuesbriefs. nationalforum. com. au/war-in-iraq/baath. html The Syrian Encyclopedia. Baath Party. Retrieved December 18, 2007 from http://www. damascus-online. com/se/hist/baath_party. htm

Analysis of Eli Lilly case study

Analysis of Eli Lilly case study Review the history in recent years of Lilly that is presented in the case: what mistakes did Lilly make in its product development efforts?Advertising We will write a custom case study sample on Analysis of Eli Lilly case study specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Eli Lilly pharmaceutical company had been well known for the manufacture of insulin related products needed in the treatment of diabetes. The company had managed to establish very firm foundation in North America, Canada as well as other well developed economies (Christensen, 2004). As a matter of fact, Eli Lilly was one of the global market leaders in the production of insulin. Its major competitor was Novo Nordisk, a German based pharmaceutical firm. However, the two market rivals merged and formed one big firm. For a considerable period of time, Eli Lilly had enjoyed impressive revenue amounting to over $5 billion. In any case, the second largest generator of revenue at Eli L illy was insulin. The company started experiencing expedited growth in its manufacturing portfolio when it was awarded an exclusive license to manufacture and market insulin products in the wider North America. Although this was an early development, it greatly gave the company an impetus for growth bearing in mind that it came at a time when demand for insulin in the entire American continent was high due to increased obesity (Christensen, 2004). There were myriad of mistakes that the management at Eli Lilly Co. made in their path towards product development. It is imperative to note that all the subsequent improvements that were done on insulin especially after 1923 brought about tremendous results. However, the company failed to prioritize its development agenda. It is indisputable that the pharmaceutical company was faced with a major management challenge throughout its operations. For instance, one of the vivid mistakes that Eli Lilly committed was to invest enormous amount of money when innovating in one product only (Insulin). This was executed without a proper audit of the cost benefit analysis. In other words, the company proceeded with an extremely fast pace of innovation which jeopardized its operations in later years due to loss of billions of dollars. For example, the pens and Match insulin that were launched almost on all major markets across the world was done within a very short time. In addition, the test data technology as well as operating CDS centers proved to be an extra and unnecessarily financial burden to the company. It is imperative to mention that the CDS centers were not used to retail insulin products for Eli Lilly Company. These centers were meant for providing education to the population. As a result, there were no direct returns on this multi-million investment. The company also failed or completely ignored to work on its supply chain management as well as product line rationalization.Advertising Looking for case study on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Why were those mistakes made in your opinion? Explain what you mean. In my opinion, Eli Lilly failed to draft its own developmental plan and the various phases through which innovation would take place. While we may appreciate the fact that the company made some considerable gains in its development record in manufacturing and marketing insulin products, it is worth noting that it reached at a point when cash outflows in terms of innovative investment went far above the revenue generated. In addition, the company should have introduced insulin products into the market bit by bit only after assessing the competitiveness and demand of the products. In most of its innovative moves, Eli Lilly did not proceed with caution. The company disregarded the potential of other market players. In addition, it did not carry out any investment appraisal or prior surveys before expandin g to overseas markets. As you analyze what lessons Lilly needs to have learned from its past experiences, apply those lessons to the innovation projects on Mr. Larry Ellingson’s current agenda at the time of the case. Is the Company pursuing the right diabetes related opportunities in light of what you perceive matters to most customers? Specify which of the possible projects he should emphasize and why. (Note that as always, there are various different segments of customers, some more important to growth than others). There are several lessons that Eli Lilly ought to have learnt from its past management loopholes. To begin with, it is worth noting that the main management problem at the company was largely a function of how innovation was approached over the years. In the case of Eli Lilly, it was necessary for the company to develop a statistical study source that would capture the internal innovative strategy of the firm as well as analyze the economic features of both the products being sold and innovative response of the market. For instance, the Portable Blood Glucose Meters did not respond well to some markets due to the prime price of the product. Additionally, the market dynamics led to low or reduced sales due to high competition from other market rivals. There were some companies like Boehringer Mannheim that were selling their insulin with free samples attached to the gadget. Mr. Larry Ellingson’s current agenda on innovation may not be addressing the needs of all segments of customers. The management of the company should emphasize on developing more user-friendly insulin gadgets and which are also cost effective. The CDS centers should be operated minimally or eliminated altogether. Mr. Larry Ellingson ought to embark on thorough Research and Development (RD) especially in foreign markets in order to establish the various needs of consumer segments available in the market before eventually rolling out new products.Advertising We will write a custom case study sample on Analysis of Eli Lilly case study specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More What about Humulin – what should the Company do with this product on which it has spent so much money with such poor results, why did it do this, what should it do now should it market it more widely to doctors (advertising was largely still forbidden at this time), market it differently, or discontinue it? The fact Humulin has been assimilated into the market as well as cost the company enormous sum of money implies one important consideration. It should be promoted in the market using the most viable avenues of advertisements. Market promotion should be accompanied by price reduction of the product so that all segments of consumers are reached out. It is most likely that the prime price of Humulin was a major marketing setback for the product. In addition, marketing of Humulin should also target professionals in healthcar e such as doctors. Is Eli Lilly Co. talking to the right persons or groups to determine what product features or advancements would be most appreciated by the â€Å"diabetes related market?† Explain your answer, do not just answer yes or no. It is highly likely that Eli Lilly Co has failed to contract the right persons or professional to carry out market survey before embarking on selling newly innovated products. This has been evident from the fact that a product such as Humulin did not yield positive outcome in the market. Research and Development (RD) is indeed necessary as part and parcel of successful innovative end. What other steps should Ellingson and/or his bosses do to ensure the success of Eli Lilly’s efforts to grow and expand its diabetes related market? The following are some of the steps that should be taken to ensure growth of diabetes related market: exercise strategic human resource management, conduct cost-benefit analysis, create a distinction bet ween process of innovation viability of individual product in the market as well as understand the various modes of innovation that can be successfully employed in international and domestic companies (Jolly, 2003).Advertising Looking for case study on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More What should we learn from this sad case? The main lesson that can be learnt from this case analysis is that the process of innovative development in an organization should be executed with caution and proper planning (Jolly, 2003). References Christensen, M.C. (2004). Eli Lilly and Company: Innovation in Diabetes Care. Harvard Business School. 697(77): 71-86. Jolly, A. (2003). Innovation: harnessing creativity for business growth. London, UK: Kogan Page.

Frederick Douglasss Speeches essays

Frederick Douglass's Speeches essays Frederick Douglass tried to evoke a desire for Liberation amongst the African-American people in his writings and oratory. To many people, Douglass appeared to be the black Moses, leading his people to freedom not only physically, but mentally and getting there by non-violent means. Douglass believed that if he could successfully show that blacks were in fact equal to whites, he thought that in turn everyone would recognize this and put an end to slavery. Frederick Douglass has emerged as the representative black male writer of his time period. As is well known, Douglass, the son of a slave woman and a white slave master, spent the first part of his life as a slave in Maryland, escaping to New Bedford, Massachusetts in 1838 (Levine 3).Fearing fugitive slave hunters, Douglass sailed to the British Isles, and when he returned in 1847, he established the North Star, thus beginning a sixteen-year career as an editor and publisher of three different antislavery newspapers. In the middle of this journalistic career, he printed an expanded version of his autobiography, My Bondage and My Freedom (1855), a text that articulated some of the key tenets of his newspapers temperance and the importance of pursuing black elevation in the United States. As a slave himself, Douglass in his person embodies the possibilities of regeneration. In My Bondage and My Freedom, Douglass signals his entry into revolutionary tradition. And thus he presents himself in his autobiography as a national representative, fighting not only for its moral and political principles but for the very civilization that served as a foundation for the development of those principles. In this work, Douglass implying that blacks, by following Douglasss representative example, can overcome what Douglass refers to as the ten thousand discouragements ... which best their existence, in this country (Holland 58) he nonetheless ...

Whale Species That Migrate and the Distance Traveled

Whale Species That Migrate and the Distance Traveled Whales may migrate thousands of miles between breeding and feeding grounds. In this article, you can learn about how whales migrate and the longest distance a whale has migrated. About Migration Migration is the seasonal movement of animals from one place to another. Many species of whales migrate from feeding grounds to breeding grounds - some traveling long distances that may amount to thousands of miles. Some whales migrate latitudinally (north-south), some move between onshore and offshore areas, and some do both. Where Whales Migrate There are over 80 species of whales, and each has their own movement patterns, many of which are not yet fully understood. In general, whales migrate toward the colder poles in the summer and toward the more tropical waters of the equator in the winter. This pattern allows whales to take advantage of the productive feeding grounds in colder waters in the summer, and then when productivity lowers, to migrate to warmer waters and give birth to calves.   Do All Whales Migrate? All whales in a population may not migrate. For example, juvenile humpback whales may not travel as far as adults, since they are not mature enough to reproduce. They often stay in cooler waters and exploit the prey that occurs there during the winter. Some whale species with fairly well-known migration patterns include: Gray whales, which migrate between Alaska and Russia and Baja CaliforniaNorth Atlantic right whales, which appear to move between cold waters off the Northeastern US and Canada to waters off South Carolina, Georgia and Florida.Humpback whales, which move between northern feeding grounds and southern breeding grounds.  Blue whales. In the Pacific, blue whales migrate from California to Mexico and Costa Rica. What Is the Longest Whale Migration? Gray whales are thought to have the longest migrations of any marine mammal, traveling 10,000-12,000 miles round trip between their breeding grounds off Baja California to their feeding grounds in the Bering and Chukchi Seas off Alaska and Russia. A gray whale reported in 2015 broke all marine mammal migration records - she traveled from Russia to Mexico and back again. this was a distance of  13,988 miles in 172 days. Humpback whales also migrate far - one humpback was sighted off the Antarctic Peninsula in April 1986 and then resighted off Colombia in August 1986, which means it traveled over 5,100 miles. Whales are a wide-ranging species, and not all migrate as close to shore as gray whales and humpbacks. So the migration routes and distances of many whale species (the fin whale, for example) are still relatively unknown. Sources Clapham, Phil. 1999. ASK Archive: Whale Migrations (Online). Note: Accessed online October 5, 2009. As of October 17, 2011, link no longer active.Geggel, L. 2015. Gray Whale Breaks Mammal Migration Record. LiveScience. Accessed June 30, 2015.Journey North. 2009. Gray Whale Migration (Online). Accessed October 5, 2009.Mead, J.G. and J.P. Gold. 2002. Whales and Dolphins in Question. Smithsonian Institution Press: Washington and London.

Evaluation of Montenero Governance and Economic Reforms on the Way to Essay

Evaluation of Montenero Governance and Economic Reforms on the Way to EU Membership - Essay Example This essay presents a comprehensive analysis of modern political and economic developments in Montenegro, which is pursuing its further ties with the EU. Montenegro’s conclusion of its Stabilization and Association Agreement (SAA) negotiation with the European Commission will pave the way for eventual integration with he European Common market . The tiny nation of just 620,000 has done so ahead of Serbia whose European ambitions have been stalled with its refusal to cooperate with the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. Montenegro looks poised to follow Croatia and Macedonia in actively negotiating accession negotiations. Greater political stability was achieved with the democratic elections held in September in the year 2006 after the narrow win in the referendum in May, with just 55.5% of voters giving a go signal for independence. Djukanovic, with his party in power has even greater leverage to pursue governance reforms in line with democratic principles as one of the main prerequisites into entering the European Union. Held in a fee and fair manner and in line with international standards, the parliamentary elections placed Montenegro was seen favorably by the international community in its capacity to address political reforms and implement them. In terms of legislation, Montenegro has strengthened its anti-corruption drive. Key legislations for improved public procurement and conflict of interest legislation are set to be passed and the Law on Free Access to Information was signed (par 10). Also for the first time as a signal towards greater Montenegro accountability, 1,692 public officials submitted reports on their income and property (par10). Djukanovic in an interview published in the New York Times said that his government managed to pass 140 laws and many more regulations in his past term as Prime Minister, with focus on reforms on the economy, education and administration. As to criticisms that implementation has been slow, he said that the "effects of this reform job will be witnessed only after 5 years" To further cement its legal democratic framework, Montenegro has to craft a

Examining the examples of European Green Energy and the ways to Essay

Examining the examples of European Green Energy and the ways to improve Canadian Green Energy - Essay Example This paper analyzes the advantages and disadvantages of green energy and further identifies whether the current policy is an effective strategy for addressing climate change. People have become aware of the effects of global warming and for that reason; the world has turned into green energy to reduce the effects of fossil energy. Green energy is energy that comes from resources that are environmental friendly such as solar energy, geothermal heat, wind, and rain that are constantly replaced. Green energy can also be defined as alternative energy that is produced from other sources other than fossil fuels. Green energy is also referred to as renewable energy because it is the source of energy that does not consume the finite resources of the earth and can be quickly and easily replenished. Green energy has been internationally accepted because it has no pollutants that affect the air hence creating a less impact on the environment. Despite the evident need for green energy, global response has been scanty. The paper will begin with a brief introduction on the current issues facing the climate change and the role of green energy in addressing the problems. The introduction will end with a a clear thesis statement based on the topic green energy, which will later build up the main arguments of the paper. The next section will be a comprehensive review of literature that explains and supports the use of green energy. This section will provide an understanding of factors such as environmental and economic benefits. The next section will review the various debates and reasons given against the use of green energy. The next section will be a comprehensive discussion on the facts that have been identified in the body of the paper and finally, a conclusion and recommendation supporting or opposing the thesis statement supported by the facts provided in the discussion. The advantages of green energy include first, green energy is renewable in the sense that it

Cause and effect - Smoking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Cause and effect - Smoking - Essay Example Currently, most of the smoked substances contain nicotine, which has medically been proved to have a poisonous alkaloid with inclusion of other harmful substances such as ammonia and carbon dioxide, thus giving prove to a serious health hazard association. In this regard, smoking causes a higher chance of contracting lung cancer depending on the number of cigarettes that the smoker uses on a daily basis. Similarly, the type of substance used and the period of time the smokers have practiced this behavior has an impact (Eysenck 20). According to Eysenck (33), smoking of various automatically affects different body parts and their roles. Firstly, smoking has an adverse effect on the fertility of both men and women especially when it comes to sexual performance. Consequently, most smokers are perceived to be generally unhealthy since the smoking substances such as cigar, cigarettes and pipes result to bad skin, and bad breath, which further leads to halitosis and chronic health issues. In addition, such people are known to have smelly hair and clothes as a result of consuming too much cigarettes, cigar and pipes. Additionally, smoking is that it is primarily leads to chest diseases such as pulmonary disease, stroke and heart diseases that have serious complications. As such, inhalation and exhaling of these substances directly affects chest operations. Furthermore, smoking among men has continually posed a threat to male potency as a result of the components that are found in the smoking substances (Eysenck 21). Similarly, smokers are said to be at a higher risk of experiencing low immunity levels, which is evident through frequent attacks of pneumonia, bronchitis, colds among other diseases. In general sense, the effect of smoking revolves around the brain, heart, lungs and mouth. Although most body parts are affected by smoking; the most vital part is the heart which is affected to the extent that the inhalation of the carbon

Writing for life Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Writing for life - Essay Example It turns out that I am the kind of person who is able to make something bad. And the fact that I have this potential makes me feel uncomfortable. So I decided to work with myself to make sure that if one day I find myself in situation of a harsh choice, I will not make a wrong decision. The point is that we always judge others. We believe that we know what is good and bad and we give ourselves this right to judge others. But in fact, considering every single situation deeply and putting ourselves in somebody’s place we may find that we would act the same way. And still we keep judging. But if we know how to act properly to be good, why often we don’t do it? I want to believe that people can be changed; moreover, I think people can change themselves. Because frequently it happens that something really bad changes person’s way of thinking, and she or he decides to make some personal changes. Does it mean that some sad event is the only way to start your personal changes? I think it’s not. Noticing some bad part in my personality makes me think of changing it into a good one, so I make decision to work on my personal qualities. Obviously working on my personality is hard for me, because I almost struggle with myself. This struggle is the mo st difficult thing in the world, because your personality is the only thing you can’t hide from. But when I think of results I’ll receive lately I feel that these difficult attempts of mine on the way to my virtue are worth being made. I hope sooner or later more and more people will come to the same conclusions as I have. This understanding of the truth that everything in my will and I’m responsible for my personality and only I can change it – it is definitely something inspiring. I wish you to experience the same, my dear

Commercial Law Case Analysis Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Commercial Law Analysis - Case Study Example The impact point on the ground should have been with fine beach sand. In this case, this was not to be found. The ground was semi-hard to hard up to a height of 0.3m and harder beyond this height. A series of studies were done to find out whether the hardness of the impacting surface could have any effect on the damage done to his skill. The research did prove that this was true. The harder the surface, the damage is hard. There should have been beach sand in the pit at least up to a depth of 0.3 m. This was not to be found. The Respondent's reason for his head having to impact the ground first was also found to be not in consonance with the scientific evidence at hand. There is a possibility that the Respondent was traveling upside down for such a large impact to happen. At the trial court, the trial Judge offered compensation to the Respondent and held valid the claim that the damage to the Respondent is due to the negligence of the City. The City has moved the appellate court subsequently as an appeal over the decision made by the trial court. Summary of Decision: The Judges in the Appeal court considered the following stance and the facts above to come to a conclusion on the case: 1. The Judges found that this was a case under the causation principle. The Appellant, in this case, is liable only if the damage is caused by the negligent act of the Appellant of the case. And it is the onus of the Respondent to prove that the act did cause the damage.2. The negligent act of the Appellant need not be the sole cause of the damage. It could have materially contributed to the loss or damage to the Respondent.  

Writing for life Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Writing for life - Essay Example It turns out that I am the kind of person who is able to make something bad. And the fact that I have this potential makes me feel uncomfortable. So I decided to work with myself to make sure that if one day I find myself in situation of a harsh choice, I will not make a wrong decision. The point is that we always judge others. We believe that we know what is good and bad and we give ourselves this right to judge others. But in fact, considering every single situation deeply and putting ourselves in somebody’s place we may find that we would act the same way. And still we keep judging. But if we know how to act properly to be good, why often we don’t do it? I want to believe that people can be changed; moreover, I think people can change themselves. Because frequently it happens that something really bad changes person’s way of thinking, and she or he decides to make some personal changes. Does it mean that some sad event is the only way to start your personal changes? I think it’s not. Noticing some bad part in my personality makes me think of changing it into a good one, so I make decision to work on my personal qualities. Obviously working on my personality is hard for me, because I almost struggle with myself. This struggle is the mo st difficult thing in the world, because your personality is the only thing you can’t hide from. But when I think of results I’ll receive lately I feel that these difficult attempts of mine on the way to my virtue are worth being made. I hope sooner or later more and more people will come to the same conclusions as I have. This understanding of the truth that everything in my will and I’m responsible for my personality and only I can change it – it is definitely something inspiring. I wish you to experience the same, my dear

The Concepts of Communities of Practice, Practice Based Networks, Open Essay

The Concepts of Communities of Practice, Practice Based Networks, Open Innovation and Social Capital - Essay Example Today, the terms of organizational development have been differentiated. Innovation and learning have become key elements of organizational performance. In the past, innovation and learning were promoted using standardized policies, such as research and development, training programs and so on. Currently, the development of innovation and learning within organizations is mostly based on social networking. At the same time, concepts like communities of practice and social capital have been used for reflecting the key role of social networks in enabling organizations to learn and innovate. The above two concepts, the ‘communities of practice’ and the ‘social capital’ are compared in this paper. Their similarities and differences are presented and evaluated, using relevant literature. Moreover, the challenges that an organization is likely to face when participating in social networks are analytically discussed. It is revealed that social networking in critical for organizational success under the terms that it is aligned with the organizational ethics and culture. 2. â€Å"Communities of practice† versus â€Å"social capital† Communities of practice can be used along with other concepts, such as the ‘social capital’ concept, for highlighting the importance of social networking in promoting innovation and learning within organizations. However, the two concepts may be differentiated, as of their requirements or their priorities. This fact is made clearer by comparing the elements of ‘communities of practice’, as described above, with the elements of ‘social capital’. The first of the above concepts, the ‘communities of practice’ is based on the view that ‘learning starts with engagement in social practice and that this practice is the fundamental construct by which individuals learn’ (Wenger 1998, in Langer 2005, p.77). In the context of the above framework, th e achievement of organization’s goals is based on the initiatives of teams that have ‘a shared way of pursuing interest’ (Langer 2005, p.77). On the other hand, the term ‘social capital’ is used for reflecting two different functions: the promotion of specific social structures and ‘the facilitation of certain actions of the actors’ (Coleman, 1988, p.98). The term ‘actors’, as used above, implies both individuals and organizations (Coleman 1988). From another point of view, social capital can be characterized as ‘an asset that emanates from participation in social relations’ (Nielsen 2003, p.2). In other words, social capital can be a quite wide concept, reflecting all activities of individuals, as members of a particular organization. However, in the context of social capital individuals, as actors, are not necessarily members of a team, as in the case of the communities of practice, a fact that offers them a h igher flexibility in acting as they wish. Moreover, in accordance with Al-Ali (2003), employees tend ‘to form informal communities or networks all the time’ (Al-Ali 2003, p.91). These networks are used for the development of various organizational tasks, more or less important. This means that the control of organization over the rules and the form of communities of practice may be difficult, especially if they are used for supporting temporary organizational needs (Al-Ali 2003). Such problem does not appear in the

An Insight into Academic Writing Essay Example for Free

An Insight into Academic Writing Essay Authors Gerald Graff and Cathy Berkenstein claim in their book, They Say, I Say, that academic writing is not about â€Å"playing it safe and piling up truths and bits of knowledge,† like many people assume. Rather, it is about the dynamic interaction between other people’s points of view and the author’s response to those perspectives. In chapter one of Graff and Berkenstein’s book they emphasize the necessity of balance when implementing certain writing â€Å"moves,† specifically, when introducing a counter-view, summarizing other’s arguments, and when quoting someone else’s words. Graff and Berkenstein contend that by opening an argument with an explanation of what the thesis is responding tointroducing a counter-viewgives the main point clarity and relevance. They encourage stating the opposing view or assumption initially so that it will define and explain what the thesis is addressing. But, they also caution the writer not to bloat their introduction with extraneous information for fear of losing the audience’s focus and engagement. What Graff and Berkenstein suggest, then, is that â€Å"as soon as possible you state your own position and the one it’s responding to together, and that you think of the two as a unit. † Basically, they insist that the best way to give a â€Å"genuine response to other’s views† during academic writing is to have a balance between introducing what â€Å"They Say† (the opposing point of view) and what â€Å"I Say† (the writer’s response). If being in a constant dialogue with others’ positions is essential to arguing persuasively, as Graff and Berkenstein claim, â€Å"then summarizing others’ arguments is central to [the writer’s] arsenal of basic moves. † All too often during a summary, writers will provide their own opinions on an article’s topic rather than revealing what the article is actually stating. On the opposite extreme, there are the writers who â€Å"do nothing but summarize,† which dilutes their own views in an ocean of someone else’s ideas. Graff and Berkenstein remind us that a â€Å"good summary requires balancing what the original author is saying with the writer’s own focus. † In other words, an exceptional summary contains the perspective of the original author, while emphasizing the points the responding author wants to address. One of the best ways to initiate an effective argument is not only to summarize what they say, but to quote their exact words. According to Graff and Berkenstein, â€Å"Quoting someone else’s words gives a tremendous amount of credibility to your summary and helps ensure that it is fair and accurate. † By quoting someone else’s exact statement it serves as a proof of evidence that you are not just fabricating another’s claim, but that you are disclosing their true ideas. Like introducing a counter-view and summarizing, quoting requires that you find an ideal balance between the quantity of quotes and content of commentary. A common issue with quoting is when the author assumes the quote speaks for itself. As Graff and Berkenstein, quotes are like literary orphans that have been taken from their original context, â€Å"they need to be integrated into their new textual surroundings. † In simpler terms, a quote needs to be introduced, interpreted, and then connected to the central idea. I found chapter one of Graff and Berkenstein’s book, â€Å"They Say,† to be extremely interesting and useful. The way they tied all their information to a central idea, while explaining how to do just that fascinated me. I felt like their writing had a constant flow from introduction of a move, to implementing balance, to common problems, how to fix those problems, and then to exercises that would reinforce their primary concepts. Their style and content kept me engaged and focused. Also, I learned a handful of writing tactics, like introducing a counter-view, summarizing, and inserting quotes, that I was not one-hundred percent sure on how to do prior to the reading. Overall, I found the chapter to be engaging, informative, and beneficial to me and my writing style.

Causes of Increased Corporate Social Responsibility

Causes of Increased Corporate Social Responsibility Abstract Aim The main aim of this research was to establish the extent to which the increased priority of CSR is in actuality a reflection of companies acting to meet the interests of society or simply a means for generating profits in a marketing oriented way. In this regard, the research sought to explore CSR behaviour in depth and in turn tried to establish companies rationales for CSR behaviour in the UK food retail industry. Methods A mixed methodology with both qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection and analysis were used in the research. Qualitative content analysis was used for analysing the contents of food retailers websites pertaining to CSR. Store Audits were conducted in order to identify the CSR practices and extent to which they are exercised by different food retailers. In depth formal interviews were conducted with key decision makers with the goal of obtaining information on CSR activities. Lastly, a questionnaire survey was used with the UK consumer population as the population of interest. Results The members of the UK Food Retail Industry showed that they have given paramount importance to CSR in order to somehow become a better neighbour to their customers, render them effective public services and at the same time contribute to the preservation and protection of the environment. The responses to the questions revealed a common rationale behind their CSR policies and ensured that the organisation established a good reputation amongst the members of the community, thereby enabling the latter to maintain a certain level of trust for the UK food retailers. Conclusion The study supported the fact highlighted by previous studies that companies have become more aware and mindful of their responsibilities, roles and rights towards the society. They were seen to have implemented activities, practices and guidelines in order to fulfill their legal, ethical, social and environmental roles and responsibilities towards stakeholders, employees, customers, and environment and society in general. However, it can also be realised that these policies contribute to the building of trust in the customers towards the organisations. Thus, as the trust is established, it is more likely that the customers will remain loyal to the organisation, thereby increasing their chances of generating profit. Chapter 1: Introduction For many years Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) has been associated with related terms like business ethics, corporate performance, corporate accountability, corporate responsibility and stake holder involvement. In recent years CSR has grown into a well-known collective expression. The growth of CSR has been a result of organisations realising their responsibility toward their stake holders in the context of business scandals (e.g. Enron) and a growing concern for environmental changes (e.g. global warming). The European Union defines CSR as a concept whereby companies integrate social and environmental concerns in their business operations and in their interactions with their stakeholders on a voluntary basis (European Commission, 2002). According to Vernon and Mackenzie (2007), the question of whether companies should seek to do good by exercising CSR, rather than concentrate solely on wealth creation, is no longer interesting and in fact the focus today is on how well companies do good. Increasingly stake holders expect companies to take on public responsibility. Companies engage in CSR through diverse activities such as donating to charitable organisations (e.g. Ben and Jerrys), green activities (e.g. moves by major retailers to eliminate plastic bags and promote green bags) and by implementing environment friendly purchase and supply policies. A survey conducted by Research International, however, found that while CSR practices are commendable, they need to be viewed with caution as these activities are not sufficient in and of themselves (Social Funds, 2000). The scepticism about CSR activities is related to the growing trend for organisations to drift away from the hard issues and concentrate more on soft issues. The Research International survey revealed that despite ignoring crucial issues such as treatment of employees, and commitment to the local community, some companies portray themselves as socially responsible using charity and other CSR activities, which deal with soft issues (Social Funds, 2000). Sceptics also believe that CSR is often used purely as a marketing tool to improving business performance. In the context of CSR being rated as a priority by companies in the last few years (Cost Sector, 2009), this research aims to study the changing nature of CSR, with particular focus on an organisations motivation for engaging in socially responsible activities (whether it is a response to societys expectations or a strategic move by a company). By contributing to a deeper understanding of rationales, notions, risks and effects of CSR, the proposed research provides strategic insights on the subject. With findings based on both corporate and stake holder perspectives on the subject, this research aims to contribute to useful and interesting reading for both businesses and stake holders. The findings of this study are based on the UK food retail industry. Food retailers make a good context for study especially considering the several socially and environmentally responsible schemes that they are involved in and the significance of CSR asserted by industry standards. In this attempt Chapter Two provides the background and review of literature conducted in order to extensively analyse previous works published with regard to Corporate Social Responsibility and the manner by which it applies to the members of the UK food retail industry. Chapter Three discusses the different methods used in order to obtain data for the study to obtain relevant results. Chapter Four then presents the results obtained from the use of the different methodologies enumerated in the study. The results shall then be discussed in relation to the aim of the study in Chapter Five and conclusions would be provided by answering the research questions. Lastly in Chapter 6 we will give us an understanding of the scope and limitations of this study. Chapter 2: Background and Literature Review 2.1 Background of the study Societys preoccupation with the social responsibility of organisations has existed since at least the early 1930s and probably even before. Wells (2002) notes that it is perhaps the infamous Dodd-Berle correspondence contained within the Harvard Law Review Issue of 1931-32 that launched the debate on corporate social responsibility. The debate started when corporate law professor Adolf A. Berle Jr. published an article arguing for the imposition of legal control on management so that only their shareholders would benefit from their decisions (Berle, 1931). E.M. Dodd, another professor from Harvard, published an article that addressed the issue raised by Berle. He argues that besides focusing on the interests of the shareholders, managers must also take into consideration the concerns of the employees, consumers and the organisations stakeholders. Berle (1931) responded by saying that companies should â€Å"not abandon emphasis on the view that business corporations exist for the sol e purpose of making profits for their stockholders until such time as [one is] prepared to offer a clear and reasonably enforceable scheme of responsibilities to someone else† (Berle, 1932, p. 1365). Since the idea of corporate social responsibility has its roots in the legal community, several academic disciplines have followed the debate with little discussion occurring between and among them (Radin, 1999). More specifically, researchers in the field of business ethics have spent substantial effort in the past two decades to come up with a stakeholder theory that would eventually fall under corporate social responsibility, existing as a separate approach to management. The issue of corporate social responsibility was not discussed after the argument between Berle and Dodd. It resurfaced in the 1960s and the 1970s against the backdrop of the civil rights movement in America. This is due to the fact that the top agendas of politicians, public interest groups, individual citizens and corporations have been largely influenced by concerns about the environment, product safety, workplace health and safety, racial and sex discrimination, urban congestion, political corruption and technological advances. Apart from this, the increasing influence and power that organisations possessed during this period (this period being the 60s and 70s?) has eventually led to a widespread societal belief that large businesses have a duty towards ensuring the betterment of society (Banner, 1979). The power and influence of corporations, actual or perceived, and the impact of their economic, social and political actions on society in general, has led to a broad societal expectation that corporations be held accountable for their actions. Simply put, there is growing public sentiment that organisations must be responsible enough to weigh the impact of their decisions on the different parties involved. As a result, they must be able to eliminate, minimize or compensate for the harmful damages that they may inflict on society. The above mentioned justification is basically derived from a moral position that corporations are expected, and should, behave like any citizen in society. This expectation is also justified on the basis that corresponding responsibilities always accompany power. As Dodd (1932) asserts, â€Å"power over the lives of others tends to create on the part of those most worthy to exercise it a sense of responsibility.† Moreover, the increasing power of organisations has resulted in a societal expectation that corporations act proactively and at the same time, carry out a leadership role in order to provide solutions to problems that the world faces (CSR Survey, 2003). This means that given that organisations frequently have more resources than governments, they should give something back to the society. In the same manner, they are also called to allocate and offer some of their resources to carry out good works and help the less fortunate sectors of society. Overall, this CSR goal is justified as follows: initially, a societal need is identified. For instance, areas such as education, healthcare, low-income housing or the arts may require funding that cannot be generated privately or that government is unable to provide to enable these institutions to continue making goods or services available or even to exist. Second, corporations are identified as capable of filling the gap by providing either funds or infrastructure to address the need. In other words, an appeal to organisations is made because they frequently have the capacity, in accordance with their size and reach, to act as agents of â€Å"social progress† (Kahn, 1997). As repeatedly mentioned earlier, corporate social responsibility has been required of companies that have both, actual or perceived power and influence. This is why multinational corporations that operate parts of the globe where people fear the effects and consequences of Globalisation are expected to perform such duties. This, according to Zinkin (2004) is usually brought about by the fact that these corporations are usually seen as enemies rather than friends. Thus, to regain the trust and confidence of the people, the company must be able to make their social responsibility known as this is said to give them legitimacy to operate in a given country (Zinkins, 2004). 2.2 Literature Review In order to gain a better understanding of the concepts and principles of CSR, the review of literature is divided into the following sections: 1. Corporate Social Responsibility: Definitions and History, 2. Corporate Social Responsibility and the UK Food Retail Industry, and 3. Summary 2.2.1 Corporate Social Responsibility: Definitions and History Globalisation, the increasing influence of companies including small and medium enterprises, a change in the position and opinion of governments, and a paradigm shift in working with and appreciating the importance of building solid relations with stakeholders- are all factors that have contributed to changing the dynamics of the relationship between businesses and society. Businesses have always been mindful of their responsibilities towards society. The concept of companies sharing their resources and influence with other groups has been repeatedly spoken about for centuries (Bowe, 1953). Nowadays, companies have become more aware and mindful of their responsibilities, roles and rights towards the society. They are seen to have implemented activities, practices and guidelines in order to fulfill their legal, ethical, social and environmental responsibilities to stakeholders, which include shareholders, employees, customers, suppliers and the environment and society in general. These actions have been given many terms, including: (1) Corporate Responsibility or CR, (2) Corporate Social and Environmental Responsibility or CSER, (3) Corporate Citizenship, (4) Corporate Accountability, and lastly, (5) Socially Responsible Business (SRB) (Raynard Forstater, 2002). However, the most famous terminology would have to be Corporate Social Responsibility or CSR. CSR first began to be written about by academics in the 20th century. The term Corporate Social Responsibility and the modern view on CSR are largely attributed to Howard Bowen, who is considered by many scholars, especially Carroll, as the father of CSR. Bowen conceived CSR as an integral part of a larger vision of a better American society with a robust and socially responsible business sector. Before Bowen wrote his book in 1953, CSR was not a generally accepted practice among businesses in the United States. Carroll (1991) writes that in the early years, businesses believed that their only obligation was to their shareholders and their only function was the quest of financial improvement in order to provide the greatest financial return to their shareholders. The errors of this way of thinking soon became apparent. For one, businesses still had to work within laws set down by governments. In the 1960s, groups advocating social issues pushed for a more extensive concept of responsibilities for businesses. In the 1970s, various organisations in charge of the social issues pushed by the activist groups were created in the U.S. Some of these organisations were the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), and the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC). These governmental organisations allowed the establishment of national public policy that now acknowledged the legality of environmen tal issues. The new policies forced businesses to re-examine their own strategies and to learn how to develop a balance between making a profit and the legal and ethical responsibilities placed on them by a widening range of stakeholders. For Bowen (1953), businesses become prominent in society because society needs the products and services provided by these companies. This grants businesses vital decision-making power in the way they affect the lives of many people. Therefore, for a balanced business-society relationship to continue, Bowen (1953) asks what responsibilities society can reasonably expect businessmen to assume. The answer to this question, Bowen states, is corporate social responsibility. He defines CSR as a social obligation that necessitates businessmen to engage in policies, formulate decisions, and implement actions that are considered desirable when connected with the objectives and values of society. He took a broad view when defining what business responsibilities include—responsiveness, stewardship, social audit, corporate citizenship and rudimentary stakeholder theory. Bowens concept of a mutual relationship between business and society is echoed by Porter and Kramer (2006), who point out that the value of CSR lies in the values companies share with societies they exist in. Businesses operate in social contexts and societies need the products and services that businesses provide, thus there is a mutual need for each entity. CSR, therefore, makes it possible to promote a collaborative relationship between business and society. Many have tried to create a definition of corporate social responsibility that encompasses its functions and the range of responsibilities it entails. One of the most comprehensive is that of the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (2007), which defines CSR as the long-lasting commitment that businesses create which compels them to behave in an ethical manner and to add to the development of the economy while helping improve the quality of life of their employees and their families in addition to the lives of those in the local communities and society in general. This definition is specific enough to imply the holistic and philanthropic maxim of CSR. It is also broad enough to include activities or programs that companies engage in that do not directly yield income but bring visible and long-term benefits to both the companies and the recipients of the programs and activities such as youth and partner communities. With this definition programs such as scholarships and funds for research, advocacy programs for the environment, and livelihood programs can be considered as CSR. One of the earliest authors on CSR, Carroll (1979) was the first to propose the four categories of ordered layers of CSR—economic, legal, ethical, and discretionary—when he wrote that the social responsibility of businesses includes the economic, legal, ethical, and discretionary expectations that society puts upon enterprises. Aupperle, Carroll, and Hatfield (1985) further defined these categories into: * Economic responsibilities showcase the principle that businesses have the primary responsibility to generate products and profits and fulfill the desires of their customers; * Legal responsibilities highlight the issue that economic responsibilities must be performed within the restriction of rules and regulations as mandated by the laws of the land; * Ethical responsibilities takes into consideration the codes, norms, and values that are not written into laws but are still followed implicitly by society; these responsibilities rise above the complexities of written laws and encompass activities that are vigorously carried out without any clear and defined statements made about them; * Discretionary or philanthropic responsibilities reflect the voluntary nature of actions that are not easy to establish and assess, but are still expected by society. These categories are still widely cited and frequently reproduced in management and CSR journals by researchers and authors on CSR. The reason for its lasting acknowledgement may be the simplicity of the model. Carrolls (1979) categories are logical and easy to understand. The author himself writes that these categories are merely guidelines or reminders that the motives or actions of businesses can be generally classified into any of the categories he presented. The arrangement and relative influence of each category was intended to imply the basic role each had in the progression of significance. When it first came out, Carrolls model reflected a point of view that was simultaneously retrospective and developmental. It was based on the assertion that historically businesses first emphasised only the economic aspects of their trade. The legal aspect came next, and the ethical and discretionary were only emphasised in recent years. Juholin (2004) suggests that companies practice corporate social responsibility (CSR) because of long-term profits that CSR brings to companies. Other reasons may also include the commitment of top management to the moral and ethical standards promoted by CSR, competitiveness of the market today, and the visionary skills of many business leaders that allows them to anticipate the needs of the future. Porter and Kramer (2006) agree that CSR provides long-term profits. The authors note that companies should practice CSR and integrate it in their core strategic plans to ensure long-term prosperity. This is because socially responsible activities can return goodwill for companies. On the other hand, activities that harm the environment or result in any disadvantage to stakeholders can only result in bad karma in the form of bad financial operation, low brand positioning, and, worse, a rift in the relationship between companies and their consumers and suppliers and even expensive litigations. Porter and Kramer (2006) write that corporations are not obligated to solve the problems of the world. They do not have resources to do this. But, a company that is well managed can have a greater impact than any other organisation or charity group when they do something good for society. CSR does not merely imply profitability for companies. Its results go beyond the costs or constraint of altruistic actions. CSR can be a source of market opportunity, improvement, and an edge over the competition (Porter Kramer, 2006). It also does not mean engaging in activities for the sake of doing what is socially required and expected of these companies based on legal and social laws, especially those on environmental issues. CSR implies taking action to go beyond these laws to minimize any harm towards and maximize benefits for all stakeholders in order to fulfill what society desires (Raynard Forstater, 2002). Warhurst (2001) identifies three major elements of CSR—product use, business practice, and distribution of profits. Product use entails the positive involvement of products from businesses that assist in the promotion of welfare and better quality of life for members of society. Business practice entails business governance that observes the rules and regulations and presents a high level of thrust towards welfare of the natural environment and equity for all generations and species. Distribution of profits entails equal distribution of profits across a varied range of sectors of society, with emphasis on local communities. Bowen (1953) also notes that CSR should not be seen as a primary solution to the many problems of society. CSR can only do so much, and it should only be seen by companies and society as a set of guidelines for businesses in the way they perform and carry on their operations within the context of a larger society and the many issues that abound within the social milieu that they operate in. A key concept of CSR is the idea of stakeholders. Stakeholders are all groups or individuals who have an impact on or are affected by the attainment of any organisations goals (Freeman, 1984). It can be said that stakeholders are any entity who have a big â€Å"stake† in what businesses do. The concept of stakeholders therefore goes beyond the shareholders, employees, and clients or customers of a company. It includes communities, public interest groups, social activist groups, environmental groups, and the media which, according to Freeman, author of the Stakeholder Theory, businesses are accountable to. Other researchers (Marcus, 1996; Munilla Miles, 2005) list specific stakeholders as: owners; customers; employees; local, regional and national communities; competitors; suppliers; social activists; public at large; creditors; non-government organisations (NGOs); and even the natural environment, which, although unable to state its opinions, has become a major stakeholder today because of the many laws promulgated to care for the Earth in a sustainable way. Hopkins (2003) writes that CSR primarily deals with ensuring that businesses treat stakeholders in an ethical or responsible way which means treating them in a manner considered suitable by members of any civilized society. The social context of this definition includes economic responsibility. Stakeholders can be both within businesses and outside it. This signifies the natural environment as a stakeholder. In a broader sense, the objective of social responsibility is to establish better and higher standards of living while maintaining the capability of businesses to make a profit. These two components of the objective of social responsibility are both done for the stakeholders within and outside companies. According to Freeman (1984) for successful transactions with stakeholders, businesses must accept the authority and procedures of various stakeholders. Stakeholders will thus have the freedom to communicate their concerns. Furthermore, to manage and develop a strong relationship with stakeholders, businesses must understand their concerns and develop programs that will address these concerns. Stakeholders have various ways to ensure that businesses fulfill societys expectations. Some may opt to organize rallies, some may opt for more peaceful negotiations, some may engage in joint activities such as seminars or tree-planting sessions or other awareness raising activities, and some may use the media to further disseminate their issues. For example, the environmental group Greenpeace printed leaflets and wrote articles against genetically modified food, which led some food manufacturing corporations to either stop production of certain products or to develop new, healthier items. Freeman (1984) points out that the term â€Å"stakeholder† first appeared in management literature in a 1963 international memorandum published by the Stanford Research Institute. The term then was strictly yet broadly defined as the peoples or groups who give their support to companies and without whom businesses would stop to surviving. The main idea in this initial context already shows a measure of the importance of stakeholders. In a way, this definition states that without the support of stakeholders, businesses would not be able to survive. Of course, the limitation of this definition lies in the fact that stakeholders here may mean only the groups that are influential for companies such as the shareholders or government groups or investors. Each business activity has a different group of stakeholders. This is because each individual in society is interested in and promotes a varied and widely different range of concerns (Freeman, 1984). Some are more interested in environmental issues, while others advocate employment benefits, and still others fight for education. One way to determine which stakeholder is relevant to which particular aspect of business is through the generation of a generic stakeholder map, which is a diagram of the various groups relevant to the whole organisation broken down into levels and subdivisions in order to divide big groups into small groups based on specific interests. Some experts, however, think that this mapping procedure does not encapsulate the complex linkages between businesses and the various individuals and groups in society. An approach of corporate social responsibility that centers on stakeholders emphasizes the strategic and effective management of relationships and promotion of what Freeman and McVea (2001) call shared interests. The stakeholder model also puts some emphasis on persuading businesses to rebuild or restore relationships with groups or organisations that they have been at odds with. A good stakeholder management program also involves open communication, negotiation, management, and motivation. The end result of all of these actions leads to the establishment of an attitude of partnership, mutual association and interdependence between businesses and stakeholders. All of these activities are held together by the values and ethical standards that businesses stand for. Freeman and McVea (2001) further emphasise that good stakeholder management promotes a business own company values. CSR does not mean catering to the interests of stakeholders while abandoning all other aspects of business. Rather it entails in-depth deliberations taking into account all factors of social expectations. A well-developed stakeholder management program also allows businesses to create approaches that can serve stakeholders even in the long run. Although some individuals may not be happy with short-term decisions and feel that their causes need more attention, a good stakeholder management program takes all things into considerations so that all stakeholders, not just a chosen few, continue to be firm supporters of businesses. Besides understanding stakeholders concerns, businesses must also look at the other components of CSR to determine the entire range of responsibilities that stakeholders expect them to embrace. When discussing and identifying these components of CSR, scholars and authors have been turning to the CSR pyramid presented by Carroll (1991). The CSR pyramid is arranged to follow the levels of Carrolls (1979) earlier work of the four categories of CSR. The arrangement is in accordance with the degrees of social expectations that have been connected with each category. It has been used to assess businesses performance in terms of quantity, quality, effectiveness, and efficiency in their implementation of CSR initiatives. Table 2.2.1 The Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility Be a Good Corporate Citizen Philanthropic Responsibility Contribute Resources to the community; Improve Quality of Life Be Ethical Ethical Responsibility Obligation to do what is right, just and fair; Avoid Harm Obey the Law Legal Responsibility Law is Societys codification of right and wrong; Play the Rules of the game Be Profitable Economic Responsibility The Foundation on which all the others rest (Source : Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility (Carroll, 1991, p. 39)) Obligations or responsibilities included in the pyramid have always existed in the business world. But the importance of philanthropic and ethical responsibilities has only received attention in recent years. Through this pyramid, Carroll (1991) hoped to show that a good CSR program can be broken down into well-defined components that make up a complete package. It can be seen as a framework for comprehending companies ever-evolving CSR activities. In addition, looking at each component can help leaders to distinguish and understand the various obligations of businesses that are in constant conflict with each other but which are mutually exclusive. Based on the expected activities for each level, economic responsibilities seem to be always in tension with the other responsibilities. Carroll (1991) also included the concept of stakeholders in this model, pointing out that taking their perspective into account would allow businesses to recognize the tension between all levels of the pyramid as realities of any organisation. This perspective can also allow businesses to see the pyramid as a united basis or framework of how firms will implement their decisions, actions, and programs. As can be seen, economic profit forms the foundation of the whole pyramid. Carroll (1991) acknowledges the basic fact that businesses were created historically as economic entities that are primarily concerned with making money and creating profit. Without this component, all other responsibilities become moot. Carroll states that the idea he was proposing was that CSR, to be acknowledged as a legitimate action for businesses, had to deal with the whole range of responsibilities these businesses had to answer for to society. Of course this would have to include the most basic responsibility—economic. The next level shows that businesses are obligated to follow the rules of law—various national and international laws—that socie Causes of Increased Corporate Social Responsibility Causes of Increased Corporate Social Responsibility Abstract Aim The main aim of this research was to establish the extent to which the increased priority of CSR is in actuality a reflection of companies acting to meet the interests of society or simply a means for generating profits in a marketing oriented way. In this regard, the research sought to explore CSR behaviour in depth and in turn tried to establish companies rationales for CSR behaviour in the UK food retail industry. Methods A mixed methodology with both qualitative and quantitative methods of data collection and analysis were used in the research. Qualitative content analysis was used for analysing the contents of food retailers websites pertaining to CSR. Store Audits were conducted in order to identify the CSR practices and extent to which they are exercised by different food retailers. In depth formal interviews were conducted with key decision makers with the goal of obtaining information on CSR activities. Lastly, a questionnaire survey was used with the UK consumer population as the population of interest. Results The members of the UK Food Retail Industry showed that they have given paramount importance to CSR in order to somehow become a better neighbour to their customers, render them effective public services and at the same time contribute to the preservation and protection of the environment. The responses to the questions revealed a common rationale behind their CSR policies and ensured that the organisation established a good reputation amongst the members of the community, thereby enabling the latter to maintain a certain level of trust for the UK food retailers. Conclusion The study supported the fact highlighted by previous studies that companies have become more aware and mindful of their responsibilities, roles and rights towards the society. They were seen to have implemented activities, practices and guidelines in order to fulfill their legal, ethical, social and environmental roles and responsibilities towards stakeholders, employees, customers, and environment and society in general. However, it can also be realised that these policies contribute to the building of trust in the customers towards the organisations. Thus, as the trust is established, it is more likely that the customers will remain loyal to the organisation, thereby increasing their chances of generating profit. Chapter 1: Introduction For many years Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) has been associated with related terms like business ethics, corporate performance, corporate accountability, corporate responsibility and stake holder involvement. In recent years CSR has grown into a well-known collective expression. The growth of CSR has been a result of organisations realising their responsibility toward their stake holders in the context of business scandals (e.g. Enron) and a growing concern for environmental changes (e.g. global warming). The European Union defines CSR as a concept whereby companies integrate social and environmental concerns in their business operations and in their interactions with their stakeholders on a voluntary basis (European Commission, 2002). According to Vernon and Mackenzie (2007), the question of whether companies should seek to do good by exercising CSR, rather than concentrate solely on wealth creation, is no longer interesting and in fact the focus today is on how well companies do good. Increasingly stake holders expect companies to take on public responsibility. Companies engage in CSR through diverse activities such as donating to charitable organisations (e.g. Ben and Jerrys), green activities (e.g. moves by major retailers to eliminate plastic bags and promote green bags) and by implementing environment friendly purchase and supply policies. A survey conducted by Research International, however, found that while CSR practices are commendable, they need to be viewed with caution as these activities are not sufficient in and of themselves (Social Funds, 2000). The scepticism about CSR activities is related to the growing trend for organisations to drift away from the hard issues and concentrate more on soft issues. The Research International survey revealed that despite ignoring crucial issues such as treatment of employees, and commitment to the local community, some companies portray themselves as socially responsible using charity and other CSR activities, which deal with soft issues (Social Funds, 2000). Sceptics also believe that CSR is often used purely as a marketing tool to improving business performance. In the context of CSR being rated as a priority by companies in the last few years (Cost Sector, 2009), this research aims to study the changing nature of CSR, with particular focus on an organisations motivation for engaging in socially responsible activities (whether it is a response to societys expectations or a strategic move by a company). By contributing to a deeper understanding of rationales, notions, risks and effects of CSR, the proposed research provides strategic insights on the subject. With findings based on both corporate and stake holder perspectives on the subject, this research aims to contribute to useful and interesting reading for both businesses and stake holders. The findings of this study are based on the UK food retail industry. Food retailers make a good context for study especially considering the several socially and environmentally responsible schemes that they are involved in and the significance of CSR asserted by industry standards. In this attempt Chapter Two provides the background and review of literature conducted in order to extensively analyse previous works published with regard to Corporate Social Responsibility and the manner by which it applies to the members of the UK food retail industry. Chapter Three discusses the different methods used in order to obtain data for the study to obtain relevant results. Chapter Four then presents the results obtained from the use of the different methodologies enumerated in the study. The results shall then be discussed in relation to the aim of the study in Chapter Five and conclusions would be provided by answering the research questions. Lastly in Chapter 6 we will give us an understanding of the scope and limitations of this study. Chapter 2: Background and Literature Review 2.1 Background of the study Societys preoccupation with the social responsibility of organisations has existed since at least the early 1930s and probably even before. Wells (2002) notes that it is perhaps the infamous Dodd-Berle correspondence contained within the Harvard Law Review Issue of 1931-32 that launched the debate on corporate social responsibility. The debate started when corporate law professor Adolf A. Berle Jr. published an article arguing for the imposition of legal control on management so that only their shareholders would benefit from their decisions (Berle, 1931). E.M. Dodd, another professor from Harvard, published an article that addressed the issue raised by Berle. He argues that besides focusing on the interests of the shareholders, managers must also take into consideration the concerns of the employees, consumers and the organisations stakeholders. Berle (1931) responded by saying that companies should â€Å"not abandon emphasis on the view that business corporations exist for the sol e purpose of making profits for their stockholders until such time as [one is] prepared to offer a clear and reasonably enforceable scheme of responsibilities to someone else† (Berle, 1932, p. 1365). Since the idea of corporate social responsibility has its roots in the legal community, several academic disciplines have followed the debate with little discussion occurring between and among them (Radin, 1999). More specifically, researchers in the field of business ethics have spent substantial effort in the past two decades to come up with a stakeholder theory that would eventually fall under corporate social responsibility, existing as a separate approach to management. The issue of corporate social responsibility was not discussed after the argument between Berle and Dodd. It resurfaced in the 1960s and the 1970s against the backdrop of the civil rights movement in America. This is due to the fact that the top agendas of politicians, public interest groups, individual citizens and corporations have been largely influenced by concerns about the environment, product safety, workplace health and safety, racial and sex discrimination, urban congestion, political corruption and technological advances. Apart from this, the increasing influence and power that organisations possessed during this period (this period being the 60s and 70s?) has eventually led to a widespread societal belief that large businesses have a duty towards ensuring the betterment of society (Banner, 1979). The power and influence of corporations, actual or perceived, and the impact of their economic, social and political actions on society in general, has led to a broad societal expectation that corporations be held accountable for their actions. Simply put, there is growing public sentiment that organisations must be responsible enough to weigh the impact of their decisions on the different parties involved. As a result, they must be able to eliminate, minimize or compensate for the harmful damages that they may inflict on society. The above mentioned justification is basically derived from a moral position that corporations are expected, and should, behave like any citizen in society. This expectation is also justified on the basis that corresponding responsibilities always accompany power. As Dodd (1932) asserts, â€Å"power over the lives of others tends to create on the part of those most worthy to exercise it a sense of responsibility.† Moreover, the increasing power of organisations has resulted in a societal expectation that corporations act proactively and at the same time, carry out a leadership role in order to provide solutions to problems that the world faces (CSR Survey, 2003). This means that given that organisations frequently have more resources than governments, they should give something back to the society. In the same manner, they are also called to allocate and offer some of their resources to carry out good works and help the less fortunate sectors of society. Overall, this CSR goal is justified as follows: initially, a societal need is identified. For instance, areas such as education, healthcare, low-income housing or the arts may require funding that cannot be generated privately or that government is unable to provide to enable these institutions to continue making goods or services available or even to exist. Second, corporations are identified as capable of filling the gap by providing either funds or infrastructure to address the need. In other words, an appeal to organisations is made because they frequently have the capacity, in accordance with their size and reach, to act as agents of â€Å"social progress† (Kahn, 1997). As repeatedly mentioned earlier, corporate social responsibility has been required of companies that have both, actual or perceived power and influence. This is why multinational corporations that operate parts of the globe where people fear the effects and consequences of Globalisation are expected to perform such duties. This, according to Zinkin (2004) is usually brought about by the fact that these corporations are usually seen as enemies rather than friends. Thus, to regain the trust and confidence of the people, the company must be able to make their social responsibility known as this is said to give them legitimacy to operate in a given country (Zinkins, 2004). 2.2 Literature Review In order to gain a better understanding of the concepts and principles of CSR, the review of literature is divided into the following sections: 1. Corporate Social Responsibility: Definitions and History, 2. Corporate Social Responsibility and the UK Food Retail Industry, and 3. Summary 2.2.1 Corporate Social Responsibility: Definitions and History Globalisation, the increasing influence of companies including small and medium enterprises, a change in the position and opinion of governments, and a paradigm shift in working with and appreciating the importance of building solid relations with stakeholders- are all factors that have contributed to changing the dynamics of the relationship between businesses and society. Businesses have always been mindful of their responsibilities towards society. The concept of companies sharing their resources and influence with other groups has been repeatedly spoken about for centuries (Bowe, 1953). Nowadays, companies have become more aware and mindful of their responsibilities, roles and rights towards the society. They are seen to have implemented activities, practices and guidelines in order to fulfill their legal, ethical, social and environmental responsibilities to stakeholders, which include shareholders, employees, customers, suppliers and the environment and society in general. These actions have been given many terms, including: (1) Corporate Responsibility or CR, (2) Corporate Social and Environmental Responsibility or CSER, (3) Corporate Citizenship, (4) Corporate Accountability, and lastly, (5) Socially Responsible Business (SRB) (Raynard Forstater, 2002). However, the most famous terminology would have to be Corporate Social Responsibility or CSR. CSR first began to be written about by academics in the 20th century. The term Corporate Social Responsibility and the modern view on CSR are largely attributed to Howard Bowen, who is considered by many scholars, especially Carroll, as the father of CSR. Bowen conceived CSR as an integral part of a larger vision of a better American society with a robust and socially responsible business sector. Before Bowen wrote his book in 1953, CSR was not a generally accepted practice among businesses in the United States. Carroll (1991) writes that in the early years, businesses believed that their only obligation was to their shareholders and their only function was the quest of financial improvement in order to provide the greatest financial return to their shareholders. The errors of this way of thinking soon became apparent. For one, businesses still had to work within laws set down by governments. In the 1960s, groups advocating social issues pushed for a more extensive concept of responsibilities for businesses. In the 1970s, various organisations in charge of the social issues pushed by the activist groups were created in the U.S. Some of these organisations were the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), and the Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC). These governmental organisations allowed the establishment of national public policy that now acknowledged the legality of environmen tal issues. The new policies forced businesses to re-examine their own strategies and to learn how to develop a balance between making a profit and the legal and ethical responsibilities placed on them by a widening range of stakeholders. For Bowen (1953), businesses become prominent in society because society needs the products and services provided by these companies. This grants businesses vital decision-making power in the way they affect the lives of many people. Therefore, for a balanced business-society relationship to continue, Bowen (1953) asks what responsibilities society can reasonably expect businessmen to assume. The answer to this question, Bowen states, is corporate social responsibility. He defines CSR as a social obligation that necessitates businessmen to engage in policies, formulate decisions, and implement actions that are considered desirable when connected with the objectives and values of society. He took a broad view when defining what business responsibilities include—responsiveness, stewardship, social audit, corporate citizenship and rudimentary stakeholder theory. Bowens concept of a mutual relationship between business and society is echoed by Porter and Kramer (2006), who point out that the value of CSR lies in the values companies share with societies they exist in. Businesses operate in social contexts and societies need the products and services that businesses provide, thus there is a mutual need for each entity. CSR, therefore, makes it possible to promote a collaborative relationship between business and society. Many have tried to create a definition of corporate social responsibility that encompasses its functions and the range of responsibilities it entails. One of the most comprehensive is that of the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (2007), which defines CSR as the long-lasting commitment that businesses create which compels them to behave in an ethical manner and to add to the development of the economy while helping improve the quality of life of their employees and their families in addition to the lives of those in the local communities and society in general. This definition is specific enough to imply the holistic and philanthropic maxim of CSR. It is also broad enough to include activities or programs that companies engage in that do not directly yield income but bring visible and long-term benefits to both the companies and the recipients of the programs and activities such as youth and partner communities. With this definition programs such as scholarships and funds for research, advocacy programs for the environment, and livelihood programs can be considered as CSR. One of the earliest authors on CSR, Carroll (1979) was the first to propose the four categories of ordered layers of CSR—economic, legal, ethical, and discretionary—when he wrote that the social responsibility of businesses includes the economic, legal, ethical, and discretionary expectations that society puts upon enterprises. Aupperle, Carroll, and Hatfield (1985) further defined these categories into: * Economic responsibilities showcase the principle that businesses have the primary responsibility to generate products and profits and fulfill the desires of their customers; * Legal responsibilities highlight the issue that economic responsibilities must be performed within the restriction of rules and regulations as mandated by the laws of the land; * Ethical responsibilities takes into consideration the codes, norms, and values that are not written into laws but are still followed implicitly by society; these responsibilities rise above the complexities of written laws and encompass activities that are vigorously carried out without any clear and defined statements made about them; * Discretionary or philanthropic responsibilities reflect the voluntary nature of actions that are not easy to establish and assess, but are still expected by society. These categories are still widely cited and frequently reproduced in management and CSR journals by researchers and authors on CSR. The reason for its lasting acknowledgement may be the simplicity of the model. Carrolls (1979) categories are logical and easy to understand. The author himself writes that these categories are merely guidelines or reminders that the motives or actions of businesses can be generally classified into any of the categories he presented. The arrangement and relative influence of each category was intended to imply the basic role each had in the progression of significance. When it first came out, Carrolls model reflected a point of view that was simultaneously retrospective and developmental. It was based on the assertion that historically businesses first emphasised only the economic aspects of their trade. The legal aspect came next, and the ethical and discretionary were only emphasised in recent years. Juholin (2004) suggests that companies practice corporate social responsibility (CSR) because of long-term profits that CSR brings to companies. Other reasons may also include the commitment of top management to the moral and ethical standards promoted by CSR, competitiveness of the market today, and the visionary skills of many business leaders that allows them to anticipate the needs of the future. Porter and Kramer (2006) agree that CSR provides long-term profits. The authors note that companies should practice CSR and integrate it in their core strategic plans to ensure long-term prosperity. This is because socially responsible activities can return goodwill for companies. On the other hand, activities that harm the environment or result in any disadvantage to stakeholders can only result in bad karma in the form of bad financial operation, low brand positioning, and, worse, a rift in the relationship between companies and their consumers and suppliers and even expensive litigations. Porter and Kramer (2006) write that corporations are not obligated to solve the problems of the world. They do not have resources to do this. But, a company that is well managed can have a greater impact than any other organisation or charity group when they do something good for society. CSR does not merely imply profitability for companies. Its results go beyond the costs or constraint of altruistic actions. CSR can be a source of market opportunity, improvement, and an edge over the competition (Porter Kramer, 2006). It also does not mean engaging in activities for the sake of doing what is socially required and expected of these companies based on legal and social laws, especially those on environmental issues. CSR implies taking action to go beyond these laws to minimize any harm towards and maximize benefits for all stakeholders in order to fulfill what society desires (Raynard Forstater, 2002). Warhurst (2001) identifies three major elements of CSR—product use, business practice, and distribution of profits. Product use entails the positive involvement of products from businesses that assist in the promotion of welfare and better quality of life for members of society. Business practice entails business governance that observes the rules and regulations and presents a high level of thrust towards welfare of the natural environment and equity for all generations and species. Distribution of profits entails equal distribution of profits across a varied range of sectors of society, with emphasis on local communities. Bowen (1953) also notes that CSR should not be seen as a primary solution to the many problems of society. CSR can only do so much, and it should only be seen by companies and society as a set of guidelines for businesses in the way they perform and carry on their operations within the context of a larger society and the many issues that abound within the social milieu that they operate in. A key concept of CSR is the idea of stakeholders. Stakeholders are all groups or individuals who have an impact on or are affected by the attainment of any organisations goals (Freeman, 1984). It can be said that stakeholders are any entity who have a big â€Å"stake† in what businesses do. The concept of stakeholders therefore goes beyond the shareholders, employees, and clients or customers of a company. It includes communities, public interest groups, social activist groups, environmental groups, and the media which, according to Freeman, author of the Stakeholder Theory, businesses are accountable to. Other researchers (Marcus, 1996; Munilla Miles, 2005) list specific stakeholders as: owners; customers; employees; local, regional and national communities; competitors; suppliers; social activists; public at large; creditors; non-government organisations (NGOs); and even the natural environment, which, although unable to state its opinions, has become a major stakeholder today because of the many laws promulgated to care for the Earth in a sustainable way. Hopkins (2003) writes that CSR primarily deals with ensuring that businesses treat stakeholders in an ethical or responsible way which means treating them in a manner considered suitable by members of any civilized society. The social context of this definition includes economic responsibility. Stakeholders can be both within businesses and outside it. This signifies the natural environment as a stakeholder. In a broader sense, the objective of social responsibility is to establish better and higher standards of living while maintaining the capability of businesses to make a profit. These two components of the objective of social responsibility are both done for the stakeholders within and outside companies. According to Freeman (1984) for successful transactions with stakeholders, businesses must accept the authority and procedures of various stakeholders. Stakeholders will thus have the freedom to communicate their concerns. Furthermore, to manage and develop a strong relationship with stakeholders, businesses must understand their concerns and develop programs that will address these concerns. Stakeholders have various ways to ensure that businesses fulfill societys expectations. Some may opt to organize rallies, some may opt for more peaceful negotiations, some may engage in joint activities such as seminars or tree-planting sessions or other awareness raising activities, and some may use the media to further disseminate their issues. For example, the environmental group Greenpeace printed leaflets and wrote articles against genetically modified food, which led some food manufacturing corporations to either stop production of certain products or to develop new, healthier items. Freeman (1984) points out that the term â€Å"stakeholder† first appeared in management literature in a 1963 international memorandum published by the Stanford Research Institute. The term then was strictly yet broadly defined as the peoples or groups who give their support to companies and without whom businesses would stop to surviving. The main idea in this initial context already shows a measure of the importance of stakeholders. In a way, this definition states that without the support of stakeholders, businesses would not be able to survive. Of course, the limitation of this definition lies in the fact that stakeholders here may mean only the groups that are influential for companies such as the shareholders or government groups or investors. Each business activity has a different group of stakeholders. This is because each individual in society is interested in and promotes a varied and widely different range of concerns (Freeman, 1984). Some are more interested in environmental issues, while others advocate employment benefits, and still others fight for education. One way to determine which stakeholder is relevant to which particular aspect of business is through the generation of a generic stakeholder map, which is a diagram of the various groups relevant to the whole organisation broken down into levels and subdivisions in order to divide big groups into small groups based on specific interests. Some experts, however, think that this mapping procedure does not encapsulate the complex linkages between businesses and the various individuals and groups in society. An approach of corporate social responsibility that centers on stakeholders emphasizes the strategic and effective management of relationships and promotion of what Freeman and McVea (2001) call shared interests. The stakeholder model also puts some emphasis on persuading businesses to rebuild or restore relationships with groups or organisations that they have been at odds with. A good stakeholder management program also involves open communication, negotiation, management, and motivation. The end result of all of these actions leads to the establishment of an attitude of partnership, mutual association and interdependence between businesses and stakeholders. All of these activities are held together by the values and ethical standards that businesses stand for. Freeman and McVea (2001) further emphasise that good stakeholder management promotes a business own company values. CSR does not mean catering to the interests of stakeholders while abandoning all other aspects of business. Rather it entails in-depth deliberations taking into account all factors of social expectations. A well-developed stakeholder management program also allows businesses to create approaches that can serve stakeholders even in the long run. Although some individuals may not be happy with short-term decisions and feel that their causes need more attention, a good stakeholder management program takes all things into considerations so that all stakeholders, not just a chosen few, continue to be firm supporters of businesses. Besides understanding stakeholders concerns, businesses must also look at the other components of CSR to determine the entire range of responsibilities that stakeholders expect them to embrace. When discussing and identifying these components of CSR, scholars and authors have been turning to the CSR pyramid presented by Carroll (1991). The CSR pyramid is arranged to follow the levels of Carrolls (1979) earlier work of the four categories of CSR. The arrangement is in accordance with the degrees of social expectations that have been connected with each category. It has been used to assess businesses performance in terms of quantity, quality, effectiveness, and efficiency in their implementation of CSR initiatives. Table 2.2.1 The Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility Be a Good Corporate Citizen Philanthropic Responsibility Contribute Resources to the community; Improve Quality of Life Be Ethical Ethical Responsibility Obligation to do what is right, just and fair; Avoid Harm Obey the Law Legal Responsibility Law is Societys codification of right and wrong; Play the Rules of the game Be Profitable Economic Responsibility The Foundation on which all the others rest (Source : Pyramid of Corporate Social Responsibility (Carroll, 1991, p. 39)) Obligations or responsibilities included in the pyramid have always existed in the business world. But the importance of philanthropic and ethical responsibilities has only received attention in recent years. Through this pyramid, Carroll (1991) hoped to show that a good CSR program can be broken down into well-defined components that make up a complete package. It can be seen as a framework for comprehending companies ever-evolving CSR activities. In addition, looking at each component can help leaders to distinguish and understand the various obligations of businesses that are in constant conflict with each other but which are mutually exclusive. Based on the expected activities for each level, economic responsibilities seem to be always in tension with the other responsibilities. Carroll (1991) also included the concept of stakeholders in this model, pointing out that taking their perspective into account would allow businesses to recognize the tension between all levels of the pyramid as realities of any organisation. This perspective can also allow businesses to see the pyramid as a united basis or framework of how firms will implement their decisions, actions, and programs. As can be seen, economic profit forms the foundation of the whole pyramid. Carroll (1991) acknowledges the basic fact that businesses were created historically as economic entities that are primarily concerned with making money and creating profit. Without this component, all other responsibilities become moot. Carroll states that the idea he was proposing was that CSR, to be acknowledged as a legitimate action for businesses, had to deal with the whole range of responsibilities these businesses had to answer for to society. Of course this would have to include the most basic responsibility—economic. The next level shows that businesses are obligated to follow the rules of law—various national and international laws—that socie